Criminological research Essay Example for Free

Criminological research Essay Longitudinal Approach to Chicago Crime Research The Project on Human Development in Chicago Research conducted a research regarding the historical origins of crime using the statistical longitudinal approach — eight-year-follow-up from 1993 to 2001 on 11,000 individuals with equal male to female ratio in nine different age groups selected at random from 70 different communities— and the developmental crime analysis using multi-field approaches from various related studies in criminology, sociology, psychology and biology. The Project is based at Harvard School of Public Health and is jointly sponsored by National Institute of Justice and MacArthur Foundation. The project attempted to explain the psychological and criminological determinants of the city in response to the mounting crime rates from the years 1960’s to current. In lieu with this, the project also aimed to find ‘solutions’ through the aforementioned multi-disciplinary analysis combined with therapeutic intervention analysis. Understanding criminal behavior entails identification of the source (from birth to adulthood), the developmental origin and environmental influences. Main areas for the study include individual differences, influences from family, school, peer and community, criminal careers, predictions of dangerousness. Data collection is by multistream STORI approach—self-reports tests and examinations, observational procedures (surveys and interviews), existing records, and informant reports. Community, as a determinant, is analyzed through systemic social observation. Changes in family structure is measured at several factors including the individual and/or mixed effect of household environment, care providers, key figures , presence of extended family, quality of upbringing, and the relationships within. The impact of racism on construction of identity of the samples was also considered. Gender-specific roles was also investigated–— why males tend to be more violent and the females more into sexual and property offenses  ¬Ã¢â‚¬â€ their differential response to developmental determinants, individuality, and social behavior with focus between adolescence-adulthood period. Antisocial behavior as exhibited by criminal behavior is evaluated at traumatic stress (and PTSD), abuse and child development; the coping mechanism and resilience and cycle of violence hypotheses is evaluated in line with this. Aside from exploring the history and patterns of anti-socialism, the project maimed at creating intervention programs at the following age group to prevent recidivism: 0-6 (improved social skills and cognitive stimulation); and young adolescents (modeling, peer leader and educ films); young adults (probation and diversion programs). Testing persistence-desistence hypothesis by using various theories [ (bio-psych development, social learning and control, social organization, network, rational choice and deterrence theory)] with focus on peer relations will also be included in the Project. The Project also aimed at creating a pragmatic, large-scale approach for crime prevention by testing their hypothesis on differential social organization, individual differences, peer groups and social networks. The Project’s scheme is rather ambitious considering that it requires an 8 year statistical analysis, only 200 field experts and one co-sponsor (aside from the federal). While it is true that ‘meta-analysis’ can be applicable for such types of study, there are problems in statistical method sampling especially if the test samples ‘migrated’ or ‘died’ before the end of the project. Would the Project resort to attrition analysis? The investigation may also be weak because it relies on questionnaires and interviews, and most criminals, in reality, rarely talk about their life. Technology should also be assessed for the study. Additionally, the methods used, although very extensive, may be very tiring to the staff. Although the objectives of the study are great, the methods require extensive staffing and careful management and (detached) association with the samples in the study. Reference Earls, F. J. and Reiss, A. J. (1994). Breaking the Cycle. NIJ Research Report. 91 pp.

Midget Village :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Midget Village   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  One Saturday night, I left the house to go to a friend’s house, and the last words that came out of my parent’s mouth was to be careful. That statement went in one ear and out the other. People never think that anything would ever happen to them because they take their safety for granted. I told them that I am always careful and I’ll be home soon, so I left.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I started up my car and fished around in my back seat for my CD case so I wouldn’t be bored for the twenty-minute ride to my destination. I was driving my Ford Probe that I had just bought two weeks ago. I was feeling like a million dollars in my new car, even though it was a used, it was new to me. I was driving the speed limit and sometimes I was driving slower than it was because I wanted people to see me in it. Since I was doing that, the ride was taking more time than I expected and I knew my friends were waiting for me. Singing to my favorite CD in the car got me a bit thirsty, so I stopped at the seven-eleven to buy a slurpee.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I parked the car and went in. I greeted the people working at the cash register and went into the back of the store and proceeded to get my slurpee. I happened to glance over my shoulder and I saw that the people working in the store were following me around the store as if I was going to steal something. This got me frustrated and mad because that is racial profiling and I don’t like to be judged by the color of my skin. I confronted the employee and asked him flat out, why he was following me around. He told me that people like me come in there all the time and steal. I asked him what he meant by â€Å"people like me?† He didn’t respond, and I got even more frustrated. I put the slurpee in his hands and walked out of the store. I will not buy things from a store that has those kinds of views about minority races. I could have acted like I was one of those people who he was talking about by cussing at him and making a scene, but I just left a nd held everything in.

Electric Cars Are Going to Be the Future Essay

Nearly every household in America owns a gas powered vehicle, which pollutes our environment daily. Our society needs to consider furthering its knowledge and use of electric cars. Pollution of our environment must come to a halt in every situation possible in order to save the future of our atmosphere. I believe that the switch from gas-powered cars to electric cars is a very necessary and reasonable approach to save the environment. Several different car manufacturers have already began making efforts to adapt their vehicles to become more environmentally safe products. Although our country runs off oil and its proceeds, we can still attempt to make conversions that will lead to an overall positive impact on the United States. Making the switch to electric cars that run solely on renewable energy is a very wise economical and green decision. Our environment is long overdue for help in making it a better place for living in. The way we plan to make the environment better for living is by eliminating pollution altogether. The world annually emits approximately 8. 3 billion tons of carbon and about four billion tons will remain in the atmosphere for thousands of years. The switch to electric cars is an easy accomplishment because the technology is already at the tip of our hands. The United States will benefit a great deal after the switch from gasoline cars to electric cars is achieved. After learning the facts, the reasons are oblivious as to why electric cars are more efficient than hydrogen cars. The technology is already prepared for mass production. The negative environmental effects of production and driving the car are minimal. Manufacturers have already succeeded at innovating designs and specific features into the vehicles to assure the public’s satisfaction. With all of this in mind, it is vital to realize that the main goal of individual transportation is to enable people to get where they need to be when they need to be there. Ideally, there should be extremely limited environmental consequences when transporting in a perfect world, there would be none. Therefore, engineers and car manufacturers are not fixing the problem as a whole with their efforts to revolutionize automobiles, but every step forward counts. Instead of being content with the advancements, car manufacturers and engineers should continue to explore the world of environmentally safe opportunities to bring forward into the public eye. One of the most widely known alternatives to gasoline in America is hydrogen or biodiesel. Some might argue that hydrogen-powered or biodiesel-powered cars are more efficient than electric-powered cars, but they are not even close. Hydrogen cars are more expensive to fuel. The hydrogen car costs about three dollars per gallon, which totals around fifteen cents per mile, while the electric car pays in kilowatt-hours, which totals about two cents per mile. The average hydrogen car costs about one million dollars and the technology is just not there yet. It would cost excessively much to install hydrogen fueling stations and biodiesel pumps when it would be much easier and more reasonable to install a greater amount of electrical outlets across the world. Although, electric cars are more expensive to buy off the dealership lot they outperform the regular gasoline cars physically and economically. The electric car overall is cheaper to maintain, but unfortunately, after about ten years the lithium ion batteries start to drain out, but instead of buying a brand new car every so many years all you would have to do is replace the batteries. In the end, this will be a very good deal. The electric alternative technology is already here compared to other alternatives like ethanol, biodiesel, and hydrogen, yes, these are all great ideas, but the technology is just not readily available to us. Therefore, we should not even bother with these alternatives at all. Lastly, the gasoline cars that we use today waste power by constantly burning gas when the car is not in motion, whereas electric cars do not waste power when the car is not in motion.

The Development Of Lifespan Development Essay - 2341 Words

Lifespan Development Report Lifespan development is a particular field of study which encompasses stability and change of behaviour, and examines patterns of growth that occur throughout the entirety of the lifespan of an individual (Feldman 2014, p.5). The study of human development is incredibly important, as it aids us in the understanding of ourselves, our children, our peers and genuinely any member of any society. Development is widespread and culturally diverse, not to mention ever-changing. Therefore, the human race is always providing new areas for research, as well as challenging the conclusions of previous studies. This report aims to analyse a single adult’s experience of development over the period of their life, using qualitative data. This analysis will focus on several aspects and theories of human development. In particular, it will discuss how a certain life event has impacted one’s life, as well as the concept of self-esteem and influential factors of this, and John Bowlbyâ€⠄¢s theory of attachment. Later, several conclusions will be drawn in regards to the participant’s life, such as how they have developed as a human, and what has perhaps enhanced or hindered their development and learning. Research Aim The aim of this essay is to explore the development and learning of a single adult, and attempt to understand this in relation to the impact of certain events on their life. Method Qualitative research will be utilised in order to explore a single adult’sShow MoreRelatedLifespan Development1516 Words   |  7 PagesLifespan Development and Personality Luis Cervantes PSY/103 January 11, 2016 Susanne Nishino Lifespan Development and Personality Developmental psychology is the study of how human beings age and transform throughout the eight major stages of life. This paper will focus on the physical, cognitive, social, moral, and personality development of individuals found in stage two, (early childhood 1-6 year olds). Through exploring, and examining the countless influences that affect their growthRead MoreLifespan Development1327 Words   |  5 PagesLife Roles: Introduction As we learned in Chapter 1 of our text, lifespan development approaches human development from a scientific standpoint. To understand how people go through similar developmental stages and become unique individuals, life developmentalists look at these stages through a framework of cultural, racial, and ethnic differences. This paper will focus on three specific life roles: student, caregiver, and parent, examining the impact of culture, gender, and social status on eachRead MoreLifespan Development945 Words   |  4 Pages* Lifespan development is the field tha examine pattern of growth, change, and stability in behavior. (womb to tomb) * Major topical Areas (Physical Dev., Cognitive Dev., Personality Dev., Social Dev.) * Physical- Body and the brain. * Cognitive- Growth and behavior * Personality- Stability and change * Social- interaction and relationships grow * Cultural factors and developmental diversity * Broad factors * Orientation toward individualism orRead MoreLifespan Development And Communication : Development2151 Words   |  9 Pages Lifespan development and communication – 555101 Individual development narrative Rajbir Kaur 02/05/16 (1877) Introduction One way of looking at human development is through domains of development and how they interrelate. Sigleman and Rider (2003) define development as the systematic changes and continuities that occur between conception and death in an individual. One approach to examining human development is through an individual narrative by integrating theories of developmentRead MoreLifespan Development And Communication Development Essay1536 Words   |  7 Pages Paper: 555101 Lifespan Development and Communications Assessment 3: Individual Development Narrative (IDN) Hoori Wilcox Student ID: 14861456 This assignment identifies and discusses the relevant theory and theorists and discusses the influences possible on lifespan development from the time of conception to 20 years of age. I will analyse my own life story in relation to theories of lifespan development participating my understanding of the domains of development and the age old argumentRead MoreEssay on Lifespan Development1113 Words   |  5 PagesLifespan Development   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Going back forty-five years is not an easy task to complete because I can’t remember some of the finer details of my childhood. I know I was born on a hot August afternoon in Birth Year at Place Of Birth in City ands State. My mother was just twenty-two at the time and was already the mother of two, I was her third child. My father was twenty-one and already a workaholic, I know because my mother would constantly remind me not to be like that. My mother and father wereRead MoreThe Development And Development With One s Lifespan857 Words   |  4 PagesGrowth and Development over One’s Lifespan Who We Are is determined by our individual growth and development. According to Erik Erikson (1971) eight stage developmental theory, humans continue to develop throughout their entire lifespan from birth until death. Each stage representing a key aspect in the development of one’s identity, and personality, and overall well-being. Our personal identity gives each of us an integrated and cohesive sense of self that endures and continues to grow as weRead MoreThe Influences On Lifespan Development Essay1780 Words   |  8 PagesHuman development can be defined as growth and change over time that enables an individual to adapt more effectively in their environment (Reference this). The major domains of development include physical, cognitive, emotional and moral. The aim of this paper is to analyse the influences on lifespan development from the time of conception through to 18 years of age. This can be achieved by understanding the domains of development and relating the t heories of lifespan development to real life examplesRead MoreDevelopment over the Lifespan3149 Words   |  13 Pages| Development Over the Lifespan | Third Quarter Psychology Project | | Christina Chantharavongsa | 3/24/2013 | | My full name is Christina Kaysone Chantharavongsa and I was born March 23, 1995 in Bridgeport Hospital located in Bridgeport, Connecticut. It was a little city and a small world since a ton of people would know each other. My parents were in an arranged marriage and were both moved to the United States from Laos during their high school years. But I’m actually half LaotianRead MoreLifespan Development : Cognitive, And Personal And Social Development1717 Words   |  7 PagesLifespan Psychology Introduction Lifespan Development is the field of study that examines patterns, modes of growth, change, and stability in behavior that occur throughout the entire lifespan of an individual. There are so many things to keep in mind about Lifespan Psychology; 1. Lifespan Psychology is a scientific, developmental approach that focuses on human development. 2. Scientists who study the lifespan know that neither heredity nor environment alone can account for the full range of human

The Impact Of Water Pollution - 1487 Words

Water quality is a necessity to human life and all other species. According to Turk, J., Bensel, T. (2014) the Clean Water Act The primary federal law in the United States governing water pollution, whose purpose is to restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the nation s waters (Turk, J., Bensel, T. 2014) According to Water Quality and Water-Related Disease â€Å"The global public health impact of water contamination is significant for many reasons: (1) safe drinking water is vital for human survival to prevent dehydration; (2) water is essential for basic hygiene and modern sanitation methods, including wastewater treatment; (3) water use is key to every sector of an industrialized, transitional, and†¦show more content†¦This analysis will test if any contamination exists in manufacture bottle water or tap water. The experiments that I conducted included the following materials, Dasani ® bottled water, Fiji ® bottled water, Jiffy Jui ce, Ammonia test strips, Chloride test strips 4 in 1 test strips, Phosphate test strips, Iron test strips, (3) 250 mL Beakers, (3) 100 mL Beakers, (1) 100 mL Graduated Cylinder, Permanent marker, Stopwatch, Parafilm ®, Pipettes, (3) Foil packets of reducing powder, *Tap. [Heading 2]1 My synopsis amongst three containers of waters Tap Water, Dasani ®, and Fiji ®, tap water has unknown chemicals due to pollutions and oil spills. Dasani and Fiji is a company based product should be purified from contamination. Dasani would probably have a small percentage of pollution due to the inexpensiveness cost, and Fiji would display no contamination as to the expensiveness cost of the product. I believe that the cost plays a significant part in companies product for purified bottled water. I hypothesize that once all the waters tested, the tap water will turn out to be the most contaminated out of Dasani ®, and Fiji ®, while the Dasani will have lowest levels of contaminants, in addition, Fiji will have no levels of contamination leaving it to be the cleanest. Tap Water, Dasani ®, and Fiji ® was dispenser individually into a 100-mL bottle. All three bottles were, personallyShow MoreRelatedWater Pollution And Its Impacts On Water Body1682 Words   |  7 Pages1.1 Back Ground Among all natural resource, water is one of the most important to sustain the living planet, earth and every form of life on its face, including human being. It is an integral part of human’s activities including domestic, agriculture, transport, industry, power generation and recreation. Moreover, the normal uses of human body depends entirely on adequate quantity and quality of water. But pure water does not exist by default in its quality due to natural interaction among the earth’sRead MoreThe Impact Of Freshwater On Water Pollution Essay1547 Words   |  7 PagesStorm Water Pollution 1. Introduction Freshwater is a valuable resource that is required for people to survive. Only 1% of the freshwater on the planet is available for human use (National Geographic, 2015). Therefore water is a precious resource however human actions such as farming and pollution are degrading freshwater sources. This report seeks to find out how Victoria University of Wellington (VUW) contributes to Storm Water pollution and other issues related to Storm Water. Firstly it willRead MoreImpact Of Agriculture On Water Pollution2243 Words   |  9 PagesThe journal article â€Å"Impact of Agriculture on Water Pollution in OECD Countries: Recent Trends and Future Prospects† shed light on the effect of agriculture on our natural water systems. The OECD is the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. This organization has over thirty-five countries as its members, and aims to research and uses the research on a wide spectrum of topics to ensure governments foster economic growth, financ ial stability, and overall prosperity of the countryRead MoreEnvironmental Impacts Of Water Pollution1973 Words   |  8 Pagesrelation to water pollution. Water pollution is a problem that has many effects on the environment. Additionally, water is a primary need for all humanity. A factor that has been threatening India’s water quality is poor sewerage and pollution by industries. India has the second largest population globally. As a result, water sources have been strained by the population and residents are unable to access clean water for drinking and daily use. This essay will discuss the environmental impacts that haveRead MoreSources Of Water Pollution And Environmental Impacts1911 Words   |  8 PagesSources of Water Pollution and Environmental Impacts For both countries there are various sources where pollutants found in water are derived. There are two types of water pollution, known as point source and nonpoint source. As defined by Chiras and Reganold, in Natural Resource Conservation: Management for a Sustainable Future, point source has an identifiable source, for example a sewage treatment plant or a factory, which contaminates either surface water or groundwater (283). Nonpoint sourceRead MoreGlobal Water Pollution: Causes, Impacts, and Solutions Essay530 Words   |  3 PagesWater pollution has become a huge problem in many countries all over the world. It is known that water is a very significant factor in life, but if this water becomes contaminated, it will be very dangerous for the humanity and wildlife. Pollution is defined as to make fetid or unclear and dirty (American College Dictionary). So, water pollution means the change in the water composition to be dirty or unclear. This essay will examine the causes of water pollution, the effect of that issue in lifeRead MoreThe Sources, Environmental Impact, and Control of Water Pollution838 Words   |  4 Pages Water pollution is one of the most serious environmental challenges. It occurs when water is contaminated by such substances as human and animal wastes, toxic chemicals, metals and oils. Pollution can affect rain, rivers, lakes, oceans and the water beneath the earth, called ground water. Polluted water may look clean or dirty, but it all contains bacteria, viruses, chemicals or other chemicals than can cause illness or even death. Impurities must be removed beforeRead MoreThe Impact Of River Macroinvertebrates On The Chemical Indices Of Water Quality And Pollution2716 Words   |  11 Pagesammonia or BOD in the water relate to the families of macroinvertebrates present. Different methods have been used to help collect and identify macroinvertebrates and monitor pollution levels. This review mainly focuses on the kick sampling technique for collecting macroinvertebrates. It then describes the methods that are used to collect the levels of ammonia, phosphorus, BOD and nitrogen. Foy et al (2001) wished to access the effectiveness of regulatory controls on farm pollution using chemical andRead MoreThe European Union Law Has A Big Impact On How The Uk Law Monitor Their Water Pollution1878 Words   |  8 PagesThe European Union law has had a big impact on how the UK law monitor their water pollution as there are now specific standards that have to be adhered to as the government are now monitored and measured. The EU first regarded water pollution as an important matter in 1973 and have been introducing new directives since. The directives have looked at a number of topics referring to water pollution. In 2000 the European Commission produced The Water Framework Directive 2000/60/EC (WFD) legislationRead MoreAquatic Ecology : The Science Of Ecology1555 Words   |  7 PagesAquatic ecology is the science of ecology which concentrates on the study of aquatic ecosystems. This field can be broken out into two divisions: freshwater and marine ecology. Understanding aquatic ecosystems is critical since water is the building block to the survival of all life on earth. Aquatic ecology includes the study of aquatic environments including oceans, lakes, ponds, wetlands, rivers, and streams. Every organism needs energy to live, grow and reproduce. In aquatic ecology, biologists

The Immorality Of Having Children By Stuart Rachels

The paper, â€Å"The Immorality of Having Children†, by Stuart Rachels provides insight as to why it is wrong to raise children by supporting the Famine Relief Argument. Rachels argues that the cost of raising a child today, over two-hundred thousand, is so staggering that it would be better spent on donations towards famine relief projects. Throughout the paper, Rachels provides substantial arguments that emphasize the point that having children is the biggest decision that someone will ever make in their life rather than what to believe or whether to get married, and the decision should not be taken lightly. All the arguments presented are persuasive, but the argument is flawed overall because it never takes into account the importance of†¦show more content†¦Rather, Rachels opposes both the idea parenthood as well as accusing parents of their misjudgments.(Rachels, 572) This shows the awareness that Rachels has in objectively challenging the current stance that cou ples must have a child together. Altogether, Rachels has provided a strong paper that initially seems very convincing, but when taking a deeper look, one finds that there are several flaws in his argument. One of the major opponents to Rachels argument is Peter Singer. Singer writes about how it seems unfair for somebody to donate more than another person who may be in a similar situation. (Singer, 233) For example, if someone was considering having a child and were financially secure enough to provide for the child, Rachels would argue that the money they would spend on the child would be better used if it were donated to the famine relief charities. On the other hand, if an individual or couple were not planning on having a child, but rather wanted to not have children, they too would be required to give the same amount of money to the famine relief charities, but why would they be required to give the money away if they were not planning on having a child? So the initial ly strong argument provided by Rachels is weakened because there was little to no consideration given towards the population who may not want to have children.

Lean production free essay sample

Lean production is an assembly-line manufacturing methodology developed originally for Toyota and the manufacture of automobiles. It is also known as the Toyota Production System. The goal of lean production is described as to get the right things to the right place at the right time, the first time, while minimizing waste and being open to change. Engineer Ohno, who is credited with developing the principles of lean production, discovered that in addition to eliminating waste, his methodology led to improved product flow and better quality. Instead of devoting resources to planning what would be required for future manufacturing, Toyota focused on reducing system response time so that the production system was capable of immediately changing and adapting to market demands. In effect, their automobiles became made-to-order. The principles of lean production enabled the company to deliver on demand, minimize inventory, maximize the use of multi-skilled employees, flatten the management structure, and focus resources where they were needed. 2. LEAN PRODUCTION SYSTEM (TOYOTA PRODUCTION SYSTEM) It is a team-based approach of manufacturing focused on identifying and eliminating waste through continuous improvement by making the product flow as in accordance with the pull of the customer in pursuit of perfection. Lean manufacturing system is a systematic study of waste through in process inventory, excess lead-time, transportation, and internal movements, and unnecessary occupied space. Fig. 1 The basic purpose of lean manufacturing is to increase profits by reducing costs and to improve productivity. Costs include not only manufacturing cost but also administrative cost and capital-cost. To achieve reduction in cost, we must flexibly adapt to changes in market demand without having wasteful slacks. 3. BASIC ELEMENTS OF LEAN MANUFACTURING The basic elements [5] are pull systems, lead time reduction, continuous improvement. When these elements are focused in the areas of cost, quality and delivery, this forms the basis for a lean production system. 3. 1. Pull Systems A lean production system essentially needs a ‘pull system,’ which authorizes the release of raw materials based on real customer demand, which is defined by the system status. A push system, in contrast, schedules releases based on forecasts. Reducing inventory is one of the key measures to implement lean manufacturing. The time between order release and product delivery (cycle time) must be short, to achieve this target. In traditional push systems, suppliers are left with large amount of inventory and still may not be able to fulfill the customer’s specific need. In a pull system, the parts move in small batches, by way of calculated buffers. Hence the products move fast out of the system and this means lower inventory levels and holding costs (Liker Wu, 2000). In addition, the supplier can respond rapidly to customer demands, hence customer satisfaction is enhanced. It is also relatively easy to identify defects in products and correct it in next batch. It requires fewer people to perform the same task than before, as non value-added activities are reduced in this system. In short, the overall productivity and efficiency of the plant increases by implementing a pull system. It is a method of controlling the flow of resources by replacing only what the customer has consumed or demanded. Service organizations operate this way by their very nature. Manufacturers, on the other hand, have historically operated by a Push System, building products to stock, without firm customer orders. There are several major benefits to pull systems. One benefit is the reduction of Work-In-Process (WIP); the second major benefit is it reduces scheduling complexities. Pull Systems consist of production based on actual consumption, small lot sizes, low inventories, management by sight, and better communications. Pull systems eliminate sources of waste in the production flow. 3. 2. Lead Time Reduction An objective of lean manufacturing is reducing production lead times. This can be achieved by reducing variability, leveling product flow, and enabling mix-model manufacturing by using flexible machines cross-trained workers (Liker Wu, The set up times can be reduced by transforming internal setups to external setups by implementing Single Minute Exchange of Dies (SMED), using jigs, and fixtures and by reducing machine breakdowns by preventive maintenance. Cycle time reduction can be achieved by using cell manufacturing and by implementing a pull system. 3. 3. Continuous Improvements (KAIZEN) Every process can and should be continually evaluated and improved in terms of time required, resources used, resultant quality, and other aspects relevant to the process. When applied to the workplace, Kaizen means continuing improvement involving everyone managers and workers alike. Kaizen is not limited to manufacturing systems only. It also means continuing improvement in personal life, home life, social life, and working life. 4. OVERVIEW of lean production system Wastes are referred to as non-valued-added activities and are known to Lean practitioners as the Seven wastes. Taiichi Ohno suggests that these account for up to 95% of all costs in non- Lean manufacturing environments. These wastes [1] are: 4. 1. Over production The waste of over production was the most serious of all the wastes because it was the root of so many problems. The aim should be to make exactly what is required, no more and no less, just-in-time and with perfect quality. The corresponding Lean principle is to manufacture based upon a pull system, or producing products just as customers order them. Anything produced beyond this ties up valuable labour and material resources that might otherwise be used to respond to customer demand. Overproduction discourages a smooth flow of goods or services. It also leads directly to excessive lead time and storage times. As a result defects may not be detected early, products may deteriorate, and artificial pressures on work rate may be generated. All these increase the chances of defects. Overproduction leads to excessive work-in-process inventories which lead to the physical separation of operations and the discouragement of communication. 4. 2. Waiting The waste of waiting occurs whenever time is not being used effectively. Time is an important element for competitiveness and quality. Waiting involves a delay to non-value adding activities. When operators and employees are waiting for work or simply for something to do, it is waste. 4. 3. Transportation Customers do not have goods moved around. The number of transport and material handling operations is directly proportional to the likelihood of damage and deterioration. Double handling is a waste that affects productivity and quality. Transporting is closely linked to communication. Where distances are long, communication is discouraged and quality may be the victim. There is increasingly the awareness that for improved quality in manufacturing or services, people from interacting groups need to be located physically closer together. For instance, the design office may be placed deliberately near the production area. 4. 4. Processing Inappropriate processing refers to the waste of ‘using a hammer to crack a nut’. Thinking in terms of one big machine instead of several smaller ones discourages operator ‘ownership’, leads to pressure to run then machine as often as possible rather than only when needed. It also leads to poor layout, extra transportation and poor communication. So the ideal is to use the smallest machine, capable of producing the required quality, distributed to the points of use. In general, a capable process requires having the correct methods, training and tools as well as having the required standards clearly known. 4. 5. Inventory Although having no inventory is a goal that can never be attained, inventory is the enemy of quality and productivity. This is because inventory tends to increase lead time, prevent rapid identification of problems, and increase space thereby discouraging communication. Related to Overproduction, inventory beyond that needed to meet customer demands negatively impacts cash flow and uses valuable floor space. 4. 6. Motion Unnecessary motions refer to the importance of ergonomics for quality and productivity. If operators have to stretch, bend, pick-up, move in order to see better, the victim is immediately the operator but ultimately quality and productivity. 4. 7. Defects Defects cost money. A defect should be regarded as a challenge, as an opportunity to improve, rather than something to be traded off against what is ultimately poor management. 4. 8. Other wastes These include the waste of human potential or talent, the waste of excess energy or power used; the waste of pollution, the waste of space, and the waste of unnecessary complexity. 5. LEAN TECHNIQES In order to reduce or eliminate wastes, Lean practitioners utilize many tools or techniques. There are a number of Lean techniques available such as, Value Stream Mapping, Visual Workplace, Setup Reduction, Cellular/Flow Manufacturing, Pull Systems, Just-in-Time (JIT) and Total Productive Maintenance Fig. 2 5. 1. Just-In- Time Production JIT [6] is a collection of concepts and techniques for improving productivity. JIT is a process aimed at increasing value-added and eliminating waste by providing the environment to perfect and simplify the processes. Just-in-time manufacturing means producing the necessary items in necessary quantities at the necessary time. As the saying goes, time is money. If you focus on time, youre likely to find the hidden costs in an inefficient production system. The power of JIT lies in what it can do for the bottom line. Having materials arrive at the factory in time to enter the production process allows a company to minimize the amount of inventory it must hold and store—a costly activity. It also minimizes the cost of obsolescence, when parts sit on the shelf so long that they become obsolete. By reducing the overall flow time of Boeing products, the company can reduce many of the associated costs of production, such as inventory holding costs. This strategy will also allow Boeing to meet customer demands quickly and efficiently. Putting this concept into practice means a reversal of the traditional thinking process. In conventional production processes, units are transported to the next production stage as soon as they are ready. In JIT, each stage is required to go back to the previous stage to pick up the exact number of units needed. Advantages of JIT are, 1. Shortened lead time 2. Reduced time spent on non-process work 3. Reduced inventory 4. Better balance between different processes 5. Problem clarification 5. 2. Autonomation In order to realise Just-in-time perfectly, 100 per cent good units must flow to the prior process, and this flow must be rhythmic without interruption. Therefore, quality control is so important that it must coexist with the Just-in-time operation throughout the Kanban system. Autonomation means to build in a mechanism a means to prevent mass-production of defective work in machines or product lines. Autonomation is not automation, but the autonomous check of abnormality in the process. The autonomous machine is a machine to which an automatic stopping device is attached. In Toyota factories, almost all the machines are autonomous, so that mass-production of defects can be prevented and machine breakdowns are automatically checked. The idea of Autonomation is also expanded to the product lines of manual work. If something abnormal happens in a product line, the worker pushes stop button, thereby stopping his whole line. For the purpose of detecting troubles in each process, an electric light board, called Andon, indicating a line stop, is hung so high in a factory that it can easily be seen by everyone. The Andon in the Toyota system has an important role in helping this autonomous check, and is a typical example of Toyotas Visual Control System. 5. 3. ANDON-Visual control These are simple signals that provide an immediate and readily apparent understanding of a condition or situation. Visual controls enable someone to walk into the workplace and know within a short period of time (usually thirty seconds) what’s happening with regards to production schedule, backlog, workflow, inventory levels, resource utilization, and quality. These controls should be efficient, self regulating and worker-managed, and include kanban cards, lights, color-coded tools, lines delineating work areas and product flow, etc. If any reason the working line is stopped, a display lamp (Fig. 2) immediately appears on a board suspended above each line, showing at which process of line a problem has occurred. Fig. 3 Visual systems are used to transform a factory into a place where thousands of messages concerning product quality, productivity, scheduling, and safety are accurately and rapidly delivered every day. A Visual Workplace is self-explaining, self-ordering, self-regulating, and self-improving, where what is supposed to happen does happen, on time, every time, day or night because of visual systems. A visual system should answer the following six core questions, requiring visual answers; Where, What, When, Who, How Many, and How. There are four basic visual devices, Visual Indicators, Visual Signals, Visual Controls, and Visual Guarantee (also known as mistake-proofing and poka-yoke devices). One of the main impacts visual systems will have is in eliminating non-valued added motion. 5. 4. POKA-YOKE (Fool proofing) Poka-Yoke is designing the work process to eliminate human mistakes. Fool proofing system is a means to create devices that can discover defectives without the workers having to be attentive to minute details. The steps for fool proofing are, If there is a miss step, the device does not allow goods to be mounted to jigs. If a disorder is found in the goods, the device does not allow the machine to start processing. If there is a miss step in work process or in motion, it is automatically adjusted, and the device will allow processing to proceed. The disorder that has occurred in preceding process is examined at the next process, and the device will stop defectives. If a certain operation is forgotten or stopped, the device does not allow the next operation to begin. 5. 5. Workplace Organization (5 S) This tool is a systematic method for organizing and standardizing the work place. It’s one of the simplest Lean tools to implement, provides immediate return on investment, crosses all industry boundaries, and is applicable to every function with an organization. One of the most fundamental and widely applied tools of Lean Manufacturing is 5S. The benefits of 5S are: It can be done today Everyone can participate Waste is made visible Has a wide area of impact Improves set up times Improves quality Improves safety Improves morale Improves productivity There is an order and logic to how 5S is carried out. It doesn’t make sense to start by arranging things neatly, if most of those things are not needed. The five ‘S’ words below are the steps of 5S. 5. 5. 1. Sort It is about removing all items that are not required or are unnecessary within a period ahead. Such items are waste, or lead to waste. They take up space, lead to extra walking around, and lead to waste of time whilst searching for needed items buried under piles of less important material. 5. 5. 2. Straighten It is about having things easy to hand, labeled, classified and easily visible. Shadow boards may be used for tools, books arranged by topic, shelves not too high, wheels on carts, heavy low and light high, colour coded connections and pipes. It has a direct impact on productivity-Searching for lost papers and tools should be eliminated. And time wasted should be cut by careful location of tools and materials. 5. 5. 3. Scrub (Sweep) Clean and check regularly is about keeping things clean and ready to go. This step follows clean and orderliness. It needs to be done daily. Routine maintenance may be in cooperated – oil every day, replace after 5000 sheets, and ‘air craft style checks’ where items are checked at the start of every shift. One important activity is identifying which maintenance activities are the responsibility of the ordinary staff, and which are the responsibility of the specialist maintenance staff. 5. 5. 4. Standardise It refers to engendering the habits of workplace procedures. It is about the establishment and maintenance of standards. The first standard is to ensure that the previous 3S’s are in place and maintained. Standards should be kept line side and be diagrammatic or written, but never verbal. Standard procedures can be color coded to match the product, which carries a label of matching colour. When an engineering change occurs, a number on the product should match the number on the standard sheet. Any standard should cover not only what to do when things are normal, but also what to do if things go wrong. 5. 5. 5 Self Discipline It is to make sure that the activities are kept going. This amounts to identifying responsible people, setting the frequency of review, and maintaining a visual record for important equipment. Prevention is the watchword. But even better than prevention is failsafing, whereby inspection is automatic and a warning occurs. Examples are automatic counts on cutting, showing a light when tool change is required, or automatic backup of hard disk. Management participation and interest is vital to keep a 5S programs going. Expectation and example are important. Management must be seen to practice 5S themselves, and to maintain commitment. 5. 6. Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) It is a concept of productive maintenance aimed at achieving overall effectiveness of the production system through the involvement of all the people in the organization. It consists of a company wide equipment maintenance program covering the entire equipment life cycle. The goal of TPM is to minimize downtime due to maintenance, and maximize machine uptime. One of the key elements of TPM is autonomous maintenance where the operators are responsible for maintaining their own equipment. TPM stages are break down maintenance, preventive maintenance, productive maintenance, and total productive maintenance. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TPM, PRODUCTIVE MAINTENANCE AND PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE Fig. 4 TPM = Productive Maintenance + Small Group Activities MP = Maintenance Prevention PM = Preventive Maintenance MI = Maintainability Improvement TPM capitalizes on proactive and progressive maintenance methodologies and calls upon the knowledge and cooperation of operators, equipment vendors, engineering, and support personnel to optimize machine performance. Results of this optimized performance include; elimination of breakdowns, reduction of unscheduled and scheduled downtime, improved utilization, higher throughput, and better product quality. Bottom-line results include; lower operating costs, longer equipment life, and lower overall maintenance costs CAPITALIZES ON PROACTIVE AND PROGRESSIVE MAINTENANCE METHODOLOGIESAND CALLS UPON THE KNOWLEDGE ANDO 5. 7. Heijunka It is a production scheduling / load leveling tool, essentially to distribute kanban cards in an efficient manner. 5. 8. Value Stream Mapping Value stream mapping [3] is usually the first step in the evaluation of an existing manufacturing process. A Value Stream Map is a visual documentation of the process flow, both material and information flows are depicted. It is used to provide a snapshot of the Present State of your manufacturing process. Producing this present state flow diagram will help identify all of the value adding and non-value adding steps within your process. Once this present state map is completed, a company will clearly see where the opportunities are for eliminating the non-value adding steps. The Future State Map of a process is then created showing the improved, streamlined flow. Using this method will allow a company to look at the Big Picture of a manufacturing process. Value Stream Mapping doesnt require any special software tools; everything should be drawn by hand and in pencil. 5. 9. The 5 Whys The 5 whys is a technique o ensure that the root causes of problems are sought out. It simply requires that the user asks ‘why? ’ several times over. This simple but very effective technique really amounts to a questioning attitude. Never accept the first reason given; always probe behind the answer. It goes along with the philosophy that a defect or problems something precious; not to be wasted by merely solving it, but taking full benefit by exposing the underlying causes that have lead to it in the first place. The 5 why analysis gives guidance to the role of an effective quality department. With total quality established, much responsibility for quality will be placed ‘at source’, that is with the person that makes it. The quality professionals need to be spending more time on the detective work of tracing problems to their root cause. This is real continuous improvement and prevention. 5. 10. Setup Reduction It is the technique of time to change a process from running one specific type of product to another. The purpose for reducing changeover time is not for increasing production capacity, but to allow for more frequent changeovers in order to increase production flexibility. Setup reduction is driven by the need of being able to change over a given process to produce a different product in the most efficient manner. Reducing Setup (or Change Over) is the lean manufacturing technique allowing the mixing of production/products without slowing output or creating higher costs associated with non-value adding activity. Changeovers add no value and therefore should be minimized. The goal is to reduce and/or eliminate downtime due to setups and changeovers. The setup process should be viewed from two different perspectives, one is Internal, steps required to be completed when the machine is stopped versus external steps accomplished offline while the machine is in operation. Quick Changeover will increase productivity, reduce lead-time, lower total costs, and increase flexibility to adapt to a changing market and/or product mix. 5. 11. Cellular/Flow Manufacturing It is an approach in which manufacturing work centers [cells] have the total capabilities needed to produce an item or group of similar items; contrasts to setting up work centers on the basis of similar equipment or capabilities, in which case items must move among multiple work centers before they are completed; the term group technology is sometimes used to distinguish cells that produce a relatively large family [group] of similar items. It is the linking of manual and machine operations into the most efficient combination to maximize value added content while minimizing waste of motion and valuable resources. It is the technique of arranging operations and/ or people in a cell rather than in a traditional straight assembly line. Cell construction will help achieve simplified flows by integrating process operations in a one way material flow. Cellular Manufacturing is one of the primary techniques used to obtain the Lean benefits of shorter lead-times, improved quality, reduced inventories, simplified scheduling, and minimized material handling. 5. 12. Batch Size Reduction Historically, manufacturing companies have operated with large batch sizes in order to maximize machine utilization, assuming that changeover times were â€Å"fixed† and could not be reduced. Because Lean calls for the production of parts to customer demand, the ideal batch size is ONE. However, a batch size of one is not always practical, so the goal is to practice continuous improvement to reduce the batch size as low as possible. Reducing batch sizes reduces the amount of work-in-process inventory (WIP). Not only does this reduce inventory-carrying costs, but also production lead-time or cycle time is approximately directly proportional to the amount of WIP. Therefore, smaller batch sizes shorten the overall production cycle, enabling companies to deliver more quickly and to invoice sooner (for improved cash flow). Shorter production cycles increases inventory turns and allows the company to operate profitably at lower margins, which enables price reductions, which increases sales and market share. 5. 13. Total Quality Management Total quality management is a management system used to continuously improve all areas of a company’s operation. TQM is applicable to every operation in the company and recognizes the strength of employee involvement. 6. Characteristics of Lean 6. 1. Multy skilled workforce In order to have smoothed production, it is necessary that the worker be skilled in a number of functions. The use of mono skilled and mono-function worker in industry, leads to much underutilization of labour/machinery. Small fluctuations in the demand can be taken care of by lean production, through use of an elongated shift working and deployment of skilled workers. If the demand is slightly lower, the work is finished early and the rest of the period is used for either workers rest, or activity such as practicing set-ups, preventive maintenance etc. 6. 2. Short set up time The characteristics of â€Å"smoothed production† is to have a short set up time, because it assumes that there is very little time loss between different changeovers. The aim is to please the customer by producing only those products which he has ordered. We cannot complain about the frequency of die- exchange. So the alternative left is to shorten the time spent for exchange of die. Through constant efforts by use of quality circles, set up times have been reduced to single-digit or even less than one minute. Known as â€Å"single set-ups† and â€Å"one-touch-set-ups† respectively. 6. 3. Employee involvements and empowerment It involves organizing workers by forming teams and giving them training and responsibility to do many specialized tasks, for house keeping, quality inspection, minor equipment repair and rework. And also allowing them to meet to discuss problems and find ways to improve the process. 6. 4. Supplier involvement The manufacturer treats its suppliers as a long term partners. They often must be trained in ways to reduce set up times, inventories, defects, machine breakdowns, etc. in order to enable them to take responsibility for delivering the best. 6. 5. Improved quality through immediate feedback Before lean manufacturing there was batch method of production. So an error in one of the machining operation or material defect was identified only after completing of particular process. Also the same defective component was machine to final stage and after that error was identified [4]. This caused rejection of total batch quantity and wastage of resources. Because of lean manufacturing smooth flow of material/production resulted. The error or defect in previous manufacturing operation is immediately identified by operator and he gives feed back. In this way continuous and batch rejection is avoided. Effects in materials like cracks, blow holes, excess are pointed out quickly. Thus there is continuous quality improvement due to lean manufacturing. The overall effect is less rejection. 7. BENEFITS of Implementing Lean The benefits of implementing Lean [2] can be broken down into three broad categories; Operational, Administrative, and Strategic Improvements. Even to this day, most organizations that implement Lean do so the operational improvements, primarily because of the perception that Lean only applies to the operations side of the business. However, from our experiences, Lean’s administrative and strategic benefits are equally impressive. Some of Lean’s benefits are summarized below. 7. 1. Operational Improvement The NIST Manufacturing Extension Partnership recently surveyed forty of their clients who implemented Lean Manufacturing. Typical improvements were reported as follows: †¢ Lead Time (Cycle Time) reduced by 90% †¢ Productivity increased by 50% †¢ Work-In-Process Inventory reduced by 80% †¢ Quality improved by 80% †¢ Space Utilization reduced by 75% 7. 2. Administrative Improvements A small sample of specific improvements in administrative functions is †¢ Reduction in order processing errors †¢ Streamlining of customer service functions so that customers are no longer placed on hold †¢ Reduction of paperwork in office areas †¢ Reduced staffing demands, allowing the same number of office staff to handle larger numbers of orders Documentation and streamlining of processing steps enables the out-sourcing of non-critical functions, allowing the company to focus their efforts on customers’ needs Reduction of turnover and the resulting attrition costs. 7. 3. Strategic Improvements Many companies who implement Lean do not adequately take advantage of the improvements. Highly successful companies will learn how to market these new benefits and turn them into increased market share. One specific example involves a mid western manufacturer of a common health care product. Of approximately forty U. S. competitors, the third largest company in the industry decided to implement Lean manufacturing principles. The industry average lead-time was fifteen days, and this company was no different. At the end of the project, Company #3’s average lead-time was four days, with no products shipped in less than seven days. In order to capitalize upon these improvements, the company began a marketing campaign, advertising that customers would receive the product in ten days, or the order would be FREE. Sales volume increased by 20% almost immediately. After making the appropriate improvements to handle the new demand, they company initiated another marketing campaign; for only a 10% premium, they would ship within seven days. Again, sales volume increased (by only 5%) because new customers wanted the product within seven days, but more than 30% of existing customers also paid the premium, even they were already receiving the product in less than seven days. The end result was that the company increased revenues by almost 40% with no increase in labor or overhead costs. Another key benefit was that the company was able to invoice customers eleven days sooner than before, greatly improving cash flow. 8. CASE STUDY Lean Six Sigma Project Reduction in specific heat consumption in XYZ Cement Ltd. 8. 1. Stage 1: Define 8. 1. 1. Clinker Cost Break-up in % 8. 1. 2. Project Charter 8. 1. 3. SIPOC – Clinkerization process 8. 1. 4. High Level Process Map- Cement 8. 2. Stage 2: Measure 8. 2. 1. Operational Definitions 8. 2. 2. Baseline Data 8. 3. Stage 3: Analyze 8. 3. 1. Identification of Root Cause # 1 and 2 8. 4. Stage 4: Improve 8. 4. 1. Prioritized List of Solutions 8. 4. 2. Root Causes 8. 5. Stage 5: Control 8. 5. 1. Critical points to Sustain Project Gains 8. 5. 2. Cost savings 8. 6. Kiln OEE: 8. 7. Process Diagram Cement 9. CONCLUSION Lean techniques are applicable not only in manufacturing, but also in service-oriented industry and service environment. In the era of globalisation, all organizations try to improve productivity and quality using all industrial engineering techniques. Lean manufacturing is a dominant tool which is proven globally as one of the best tool available to improve overall operating efficiency.